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However, because studies and bitit reviews vary in their objectives, records are scattered in the literature and online. In some cases, reports may be difficult to access or are completely inaccessible to researchers or conservationists interested in using such data. Unsurprisingly, most of the species on our list were represented by only a handful of feeding records.

There are currently 3921 recognized species of snakes (Uetz et al. 2021) distributed across the globe, all of which are predators . Excluding the 471 species of invertebrate specialist Scolecophidian snakes (i.e., the blind snakes and thread snakes), the vast majority of the remaining 3450 species feed on vertebrate prey. Our list of 123 snake taxa represents a meagre 4% of those species. Bird eggs thus appear to be an uncommon source of prey for snakes overall. However, our list is undeniably an under-representation of the full range of snakes that consume bird eggs. Many congeners and close relatives of several taxa in our list almost certainly also consume bird eggs but have yet to be directly reported as doing so.

What we know about bird egg feeding by snakes

Although the primary goal of this study was to compile a list of known snake predators of bird eggs, we were also interested in examining traits of those species that might explain why those snakes consume bird eggs but others do not. Differential prey use within a particular snake species is facilitated by several factors, chief among which include varying body size constraints and variable encounter rates of different prey (Alencar et al. 2013, Mori and Nagata 2016). Accordingly, we chose to examine and compare the body lengths and primary habitats of the snakes on our list to snakes not known to consume bird eggs.

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While not without exception, such inferred generalized assertions of snake feeding habits are often supported by detailed dietary studies (Bates and Little 2013, Maritz et al. 2019, Maritz et al. 2021a). Many species of snakes can be ruled out as consumers of bird eggs because they occur in areas where other prey types may be more abundant, easier to forage, or less difficult to consume. Alternatively, these snakes may lack the necessary morphology or physiology to consume eggs. Egg-specialist species like Dasypeltis possess unique adaptations that facilitate egg swallowing such as reduced teeth and vertebral modifications that most other snakes do not have. Factors like limitations in gape size, active selection of different prey, differences in encounter rates, and variable habitat use each contribute to the selectivity of different prey types, including bird eggs (de Queiroz and Rodríguez-Robles 2006).

In 63 cases, bird eggs were not identified beyond the class level, or the exact identity of the species was ambiguously reported in the source material (for example, “the eggs of land birds”). For each reported predation event, we identified the snake and bird species to the finest taxonomic level possible, and we noted the number of eggs involved. Geographic coordinates were noted from the original record or estimated using Google Maps.

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Despite the above limitations, published records of snakes consuming bird eggs have accumulated in the literature (Weatherhead and Blouin-Demers 2004, Ibáñez-Álamo et al. 2015). Over the past few decades, using camera monitoring systems, some snake species have been documented eating eggs for the first time (Cutler and Swann 1999, Pierce and Pobprasert 2007, Ribic et al. 2012, Khamcha et al. 2018). Moreover, novel feeding records published in natural history publications and online community science portals continue to confirm additional species as bird egg predators.

Knowing which species of snakes consume eggs allows researchers to formulate predator-specific hypotheses across a range of habitats and environments (Reidy and Thompson 2012, Ibáñez-Álamo et al. 2015). Additionally, avian conservation practitioners can use that information to produce anti-predator strategies for bird conservation efforts. Unfortunately, information on snake feeding is poorly catalogued (Grundler 2020, Maritz et al. 2021b) making the compilation of a robust list of oophagous species challenging. Our primary objective of this review was to compile a comprehensive list of snake species unambiguously categorized as predators of bird eggs. We hope that this list can act as a baseline for further research seeking to understand patterns of nest predation by snakes and their impacts on avian ecology.

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Consequently, many species of snakes not currently known to eat bird eggs may be oophagous. We were similarly interested in examining traits of the consumed bird eggs that could provide insight into which bird eggs are at risk of predation by snakes. Because prey bulk (i.e., the cross sectional-diameter of prey) relative to snake size is an important consideration of dietary selectivity in snakes we chose to quantify the diameters of consumed eggs. Snakes typically ingest bird eggs length-wise , and so the diameter of the eggs acts as the main dimensional constraint on ingestion.

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• By searching through the literature, citizen science reports, and social media, we provide a summary of accounts of bird egg predation by snakes that can act as a foundation for a consolidated database for further research.
• We updated snake species names to match their current taxonomic nomenclature as per Uetz et al. .
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